Khamr
Khamr (Arabic: خمر, plural, khumūr Arabic: خمور), is an Arabic word for wine or other alcoholic beverages or intoxicants. In an Islamic context, khamr is variously defined as alcoholic beverages, wine or liquor. The position of alcohol in Islam is a complex subject in terms of its historical implementation and nuanced scholarly interpretation. While the dominant belief among Muslims is that the consumption, sale, transport, or service of alcohol in any form is forbidden, there are some disagreements. For example, the Hanafi school interprets khamr to only refer to certain specific beverages, rather than all intoxicants. According to Murtaza Haider of Dawn, "A consensus (ijma) on how to deal with alcohol has eluded Muslim jurists for more than a millennium".
The Islamic definition of khamr varies by the school of jurisprudence (madhhab). While most Islamic jurists have traditionally viewed it as general term for any fermented intoxicating beverage, one school (Hanafi) has limited it to alcohol derived from dates and grapes. Over time, other intoxicants, such as opium and khat, have been classed by jurists as khamr. A minority of Muslims consume alcohol and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden. In Alawism, an esoteric sect of Islam, Sufi Bektashism, and Alevism, the consumption of alcohol is permissible.
Historically, many Muslim elites consumed alcohol, encompassing the reign of the Umayyads, the Abbasids, Islamic Spain (al-Andalus), and dynasties that ruled Egypt and the eastern, Persianate part of the Muslim world. These included notable rulers such as al-Hakam I (r. 796–822), al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892), and Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961). Drinking wine was also reflected by Islamic poets, such as Abu Nuwas, Ibrahim al-Nazzam, Omar Khayyam, Rumi, and Hafez Shirazi. Wine consumption in the Islamic Golden Age was a mainstream literal practice, sometimes even intertwined with religious rituals. A notable figure during this period was the Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina, who would refresh himself in his studies with a cup of wine.
Modern Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption, and it is completely banned in several of them while strictly controlled in others (such as consumption being allowed only in private places or by non-Muslims). In countries such as Pakistan and Iran, the punishment for consumption of alcohol is disagreed upon; some believe that any punishment for consuming alcohol is un-Islamic, while others believe the proper punishment is flogging, though legal scholars disagree over whether the number of lashes should be 40 or 80. Muslim-majority countries produce a variety of regional distilled beverages such as arak and rakı. There is a long tradition of viniculture in the Middle East, particularly in Egypt (where it is legal) and in Iran (where it is banned). Beer has been historically produced in Mesopotamia (mostly present-day Iraq) and Egypt.