Solar-cell efficiency

Solar-cell efficiency is the portion of energy in sunlight that is converted into electricity by a solar cell. Efficiency, in combination with latitude and weather, determine the energy output of a solar system.

As of 2024, the record for solar cell efficiency was 47.6%, set in May 2022 by Fraunhofer ISE, with a III-V four-junction concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) cell. The record in real-world conditions is held by NREL, which developed triple junction cells with a tested efficiency of 39.5%.

Commercial solar modules may exceed 24% efficiency. As of 2025, the best reached 24.5%, typically lower than their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules have power density values of 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2).

In 2026 using triple III-V germanium cells and shingled matrix technology to interconnect cells, Fraunhofer achieved efficiency of 34.4%. An important innovation was the use of direct cell-to-cell contact, eliminating traditional solder-coated copper ribbons and the resulting shading of active cell areas.

Schematic of charge collection by solar cells. Light transmits through transparent conducting electrode creating electron hole pairs, which are collected by both the electrodes. The absorption and collection efficiencies of a solar cell depend on the design of transparent conductors and active layer thickness.

Several factors affect conversion efficiency, including its reflectance, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency, charge carrier collection efficiency and conduction efficiency values. Because these parameters are difficult to directly measure, other parameters are measured instead, including quantum efficiency, open-circuit voltage (VOC) ratio, and ยง Fill factor. Reflectance losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency value, as they affect external quantum efficiency. Recombination losses are accounted for by these factors. Resistive losses are predominantly accounted for by the fill factor value, but also contribute to the others.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range (specifically, ultraviolet, visible, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is not processed by solar modules. Theoretically, sunlight could be split into wavelength bands (each a different color), each directed onto cells tuned to those ranges that would convert that band more efficiently.

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